27
Nursing Care of Food Animals, Camelids, and Ratites
Learning Objectives
After reviewing this chapter, the reader should understand the following:
● General husbandry terms and techniques used with food animals and ratites
● Methods of sample collection for laboratory analysis
● Routes of administration of medication in cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and ratites
● Procedures used in intravenous catheterization
● Techniques used in general nursing care of food animals and ratites
● Procedures used in grooming and foot care
● Procedures used in caring for ratites
I. General care of cattle Breeds of Cattle
□ The cattle industry can be divided into two distinctly different areas (beef and dairy), each with its own set of production goals and management techniques.
□ Beef industry utilizes heavily muscled breeds of cattle capable of efficient conversion of hay and grain into skeletal muscle mass for maximum meat production.
□ Labor expenses are centered around processing and moving the cattle, with additional demands around calving time.
□ Breeding may involve allowing bulls to roam the pastures with cows, seeking those who are in estrus.
□ Many operations are now using AI with frozen bull semen.
□ Dairy industry utilizes breeds of cattle that are more efficient in converting cattle food into the production of large volumes of saleable milk.
□ Labor involved with milking cows in the dairy industry is essentially an all-day, everyday event, 365 days a year.
□ Breeding uses AI almost exclusively as the preferred method of breeding.
□ The gestation period is about 9 months.
□ Female calf is called a heifer (until she has had a calf).
□ Male calf is called bull calf until he is castrated (at which time he is called a steer).
□ Some required vaccinations must be done by an accredited veterinarian on behalf of state or federal regulatory departments that require the procedure.
II. Common diagnostic and therapeutic techniques
A. Oral administration of medication
□ PO administration of boluses, capsules, or magnets.
□ Cattle require a gun with a large head and long handle, with a metal or flexible plastic head.
□ Small balling guns are manufactured for use in calves.
□ Methods of introducing a balling gun, dose syringe, drench bottle, or Frick’s speculum are similar in all species.
□ May be used to give two or more boluses to cattle.
□ Insert the speculum in the same manner as the balling gun.
□ Once placed over the base of the tongue, the boluses are inserted into the speculum.
□ Allow the boluses to travel down the speculum and into the mouth.
□ Remove the speculum and observe for swallowing.
□ Quick and relatively painless method to deliver large quantities of liquid medication or fluids.
□ The stomach tube is usually passed through the oral cavity, with the aid of a metal speculum.
□ An oral speculum is required to prevent damage to the soft stomach tube from the animal’s teeth; Frick’s speculum is inserted into the mouth and held in place by an assistant.
□ Tube with an outside diameter of 5/8 to 1 inch is the average size used for adult cattle; foal stomach tube is often used for “tubing” calves.
□ Stomach pump or a funnel can be used to facilitate administration.
□ Insert the lubricated tube into the speculum and advance it with gentle pressure.
□ Observe for swallowing; then advance the tube into the esophagus.
□ Verify that tube has been passed into the rumen.
□ After the medication has been infused, rinse the tube with water to flush out remaining medication.
□ Kink the tube or occlude its end, and withdraw it quickly.
□ Drenching—giving small volumes of liquids PO.
□ Done with a dose syringe or a drench bottle.
□ 60-ml catheter-tipped syringe or a bulb syringe may be used as a dose syringe in calves.
□ The drench bottle should be made of strong glass and have a long, tapered neck and smooth mouth.
□ Insert the drench bottle at the interdental space.
□ Give the medication slowly, allowing the animal to swallow at its own pace.
□ Dose syringes are also used to give pastes.
□ Commercially prepared syringes containing medication are available, although these are used more often in horses.
□ Jugular veins—most often used for large-volume iv injections and blood collection
□ Coccygeal vein—used for iv injection of small volumes of drugs and blood sample collection
□ Subcutaneous abdominal vein (aka “mammary” or “milk” vein)—used mainly when the jugular veins are thrombosed or cannot be located
□ Used for prolonged fluid therapy, administration of injectable anesthetics, or repeated iv injections
□ Jugular vein is most often chosen for iv catheterization in cattle; alternate site is caudal auricular vein
1. Restraint
□ For jugular iv catheterization; identical to that described for iv injection
2. Materials
□ 10- to 14-gauge catheter is used for adult cattle
□ 14-, 15-, or 18-gauge for calves
□ Use an 18- to 20-gauge, 1.5- to 2-inch over-the-needle catheter for ear vein
□ On large bulls, a 14-gauge, 2-inch catheter may be used
3. Technique
□ Clip and surgically scrub the site; apply antiseptic.
□ Use a disposable needle of the same gauge to puncture the skin.
□ For catheterization of the auricular vein, use a local anesthetic to decrease ear movement.
□ Skin glue or a suture can be used to secure the catheter.
□ Bandage catheter site.
□ Gluteals, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and lateral cervical muscles are common sites for IM injections.
□ The needle selected depends on the viscosity of the medication and the size of the muscle mass selected.
□ 16-, 18- or 20-gauge, 1.5-inch needle is commonly used for adults.
□ 18-, 20-, or 22-gauge needle is used for calves.
□ Given anywhere loose skin can be raised.
□ Usually done on the lateral aspect of the neck and thorax, the axillary region, the fold of the flank, or the brisket
□ Calves can be cornered in a small area.
□ Adult cattle should have a halter applied to be placed in a headgate or stanchion.
□ Aggressive animals may require a chute.
2. Materials
□ 18-, 20-, or 22-gauge, 1.5-inch needle is used for calves.
□ 14-, 16-, or 18-gauge, 1.5-inch needle is used for cattle.
□ Clean site with an antiseptic.
□ Pinch the skin and raise it to form a “tent.”
□ Insert the needle and aspirate before injection.
□ The volume injected at each SQ site varies.
□ For cattle, 50 to 100 ml per site is the recommended maximum, although up to 250 ml may be given SQ.
□ For calves, 2 to 30 ml, with a maximum volume of 50 ml, may be injected at each SQ site.
□ Used mainly to aid in diagnosis of certain diseases (tuberculosis); also used for allergy testing.
□ Local anesthetics may be injected ID to anesthetize sites for surgery or other invasive procedures.
□ The caudal tail fold is the site used most often for ID injections of tuberculin.
1. Restraint
□ Depends on the site chosen, the number of injections to be given, and the animal’s temperament.
2. Materials
□ 20- to 22-gauge, 1.5-inch needle is needed due to thick skin; tuberculin or 3-ml syringe is adequate for injecting small volumes.
3. Technique
□ Pinch the skin to pull it taut and stabilize it.
□ Insert the needle into the dermis of the skin.
□ Aspirate if the injection is for local anesthesia over a vessel.
□ Wheal should be visualized as the drug is deposited.
□ Used to treat mastitis or to infuse udder quarters when cows are not lactating.
□ Best time to infuse the udder is after the last milking of the day, which allows the medication to remain in the udder overnight.
□ Milk samples from mastitic quarters must be obtained before treatment.
1. Restraint
□ Tail restraint may be necessary for fractious cows.
2. Technique
□ Clean the udder with warm water and antiseptic soap.
□ Dry each teat with a separate towel to remove contaminated water droplets.
□ Wipe the teat orifice with an alcohol swab and allow to air-dry.
□ Empty the quarter by manually “stripping” out the milk before infusing medication because residual milk mixes with the medication and dilutes it.
□ Grasp the teat near the base and insert a teat cannula or sterile, disposable mammary infusion cannula into the teat orifice.
□ Advance the cannula just through the teat sphincter a short distance and inject the medication slowly.
□ Do not insert the cannula to the hub.
□ Remove the cannula and massage the teat and quarter to disseminate the medication.
□ Dip the teat in teat dip to prevent invasion of microbes.
□ In cold weather, do not let the cow outside until the udder is dry.
□ Mark the cows that were treated so that their milk can be discarded.
□ Used to administer vaccines and local anesthetics.
□ Intranasal anesthetics may be given before potentially painful procedures on the nasal cavity, such as nasogastric intubation, bronchoalveolar lavage, and endoscopy.
□ Restraint of the head is a necessity.
□ Wipe nasal secretions from the nostril with moist cotton.
□ Fill a 3- to 5-ml syringe with the vaccine or local anesthetic.
□ Face the same direction as the animal and place one hand over the animal’s head.
□ Pull the head close to your body.
□ Slightly elevate the head to prevent the medication from running out of the nostril.
□ Insert the syringe into the nostril and inject.
□ When the injection is completed, elevate the head for 10 to 15 seconds.
□ Used to locally treat metritis.
□ Uterine medication is available as boluses, capsules, and solutions.
□ Form of the drug used depends on the condition of the uterus, stage of the reproductive cycle, types of drugs available, and personal preference.
□ The tail should be secured away from the perianal region.
□ Feces should be manually removed from the rectum before the vulva is cleaned.
□ Wash the vulva and surrounding area with antiseptic soap, warm water, and cotton.
1. Intrauterine infusion
□ Guide a uterine pipette into the uterus with the opposite hand placed into the rectum.
□ Grasp the cervix with one hand so that the thumb is dorsal to the cervix and the fingers are located ventrad.
□ Insert the pipette into the vulva; once the tip is past the urethral orifice, advance the pipette in a horizontal position.
□ Introduce the pipette’s tip into the cervical opening.
□ Inject the medication, and then flush the pipette with air to remove residual medication.
2. Intrauterine boluses
□ Wear a sterile sleeve; advance the hand into the animal’s vulva and vagina until the cervix is located.
1. Restraint
□ Restrain the animal in a head gate or stanchion.
□ A halter or nose tongs should be applied and the head raised and pulled to one side.
□ For recumbent cows, secure the head by tying the free end of the halter back above the hock with a quick-release knot.
□ Standing calf may be restrained by pulling it close to your body, immobilizing its head.
□ Older calves can be restrained like adult cattle; application of nose tongs is usually not necessary.
□ Recumbent calf should have its head firmly held with the neck extended.
2. Materials
□ 12- to 14-gauge, 2- to 3-inch needle is best for giving large volumes to adult cattle.
□ 16-, 18-, or 20-gauge, 1.5-inch needle is recommended for injections of small volumes to cows and calves.
□ A rubber iv line, referred to as a simplex, is used for iv infusions.
3. Technique
□ Never kneel or stand directly in front of the animal during jugular venipuncture.
□ Bovine skin is thick and difficult to penetrate; the needle must be inserted with considerable force.
□ Keep the vein distended and lay the needle parallel to the skin, then advance it further caudad into the vein; the needle should be threaded to its hub.
□ Small-gauge, disposable hypodermic needles do not require as much force to insert.
□ When the needle is correctly threaded, the syringe or simplex is attached.
□ Aspirate and then inject the medication.
□ If a bottle is used, it should be held in an inverted position.
□ Observe the jugular furrow for gradual swelling around the needle.
□ After injection is complete, remove the needle and apply digital pressure for 15 to 20 seconds.
□ Often used for smaller volumes of medication.
□ Cattle usually become less agitated when the tail is used for venipuncture.
□ Either the coccygeal artery or vein may be used for injection.
1. Restraint
□ Usually requires less restraint than when the jugular vein is used
2. Materials
□ An 18- or 20-gauge, 1.5-inch needle attached to a 3-, 5- or 10-ml syringe
3. Technique
□ Locate the correct site, apply a tail jack, and clean the ventral surface of the tail.
□ Palpate the tail for the hemal arches of the vertebrae while gently aspirating, directly on the midline at a 45-degree angle to the tail.
□ Inject the medication when the needle is correctly positioned.
□ Periodically aspirate blood into the syringe and reinject to clear the needle of residual medication.
□ After the injection is completed, remove the needle, lower the tail, and apply digital pressure for 10 to 15 seconds.
□ Milk veins are used when the jugular veins cannot be raised or are inaccessible for other reasons.
1. Restraint
□ Tie the animal securely or restrain in a stanchion.
2. Materials
□ 14-gauge, 2- to 3-inch needle is used for venipuncture.
□ Simplex system is frequently used.
□ Syringe may also be used.
3. Technique
□ Milk vein is normally distended.
□ The preferred venipuncture site is immediately caudad to the point where the vessel enters the abdomen.
□ When the injection has been completed, remove the needle and apply digital pressure for several minutes.
□ Even with digital pressure, hematomas form easily.
photo01 Cancer eye
photo02 The good eye
photo03 Brucellosis regulations
photo04 Brucellosis ear tattoo
photo05 Yuba College day at the farm01
photo06 Yuba College day at the farm02
photo07 Yuba College day at the farm03
photo08 Yuba College day at the farm04
photo09 Yuba College lunch after a day at the farm05
photo10 Mike Luis dairy pregnancy check07
photo11 Mike Luis pour on insecticide08
photo12 Mike Luis brucellosis vaccinate09
□ Husbandry terms
□ Ewe—adult female
□ Ram—intact adult male
□ Wether—castrated adult male
□ Lambing—giving birth
□ Ram lamb—young male
□ Ewe lamb—young female
□ Gestation—about 5 months
□ Breeding—usually occurs in the fall of the year, resulting in spring lambs
□ Overgrown feet develop in sheep that are not allowed to graze or are raised in confinement.
□ Sidewalls should be trimmed to keep the sole flat and toes pointing forward; toes are normally squared off.
□ Trimming is done with heavy scissors, hoof rot shears, or a sharp knife.
□ Removes the wool from around the vulva and the udder.
□ Performed on ewes close to parturition.
□ Clean vulval area facilitates passage of the lamb and allows the birthing process to proceed easily.
□ Removing the wool from around the udder assists the lambs in finding and suckling the teats.
□ Used to deliver large volumes of liquid to the rumen or to relieve rumen gas bloat.
□ Tube can be passed through a mouth speculum or through the nasal cavity.
□ Required equipment includes:
□ Mouth speculum (swine mouth speculum, Frick’s speculum, PVC pipe, or a roll of Elastikon)
□ Stomach tube (10- to 18-French rubber urinary catheter or 14- to 18-French infant feeding tube for lambs, small to medium foal stomach tube for sheep)
□ Dose syringe or funnel
□ When using the oral route in neonatal lambs, a mouth speculum is usually not required.
□ Lubricate the distal one third of the tube with water, mineral oil, or water-soluble lubricating jelly and introduce the mouth speculum into the interdental space.
□ Place the tube into the speculum and advance steadily with gentle pressure.
□ Verify correct tube placement by watching the animal swallow the tube or by blowing into the tube while someone listens for gurgling sounds in the paralumbar fossa region.
□ Administer fluids or liquid medications through the tube using a funnel or dose syringe.
□ Flush the tube with water until it runs clear, then kink or occlude the tube and withdraw it quickly.
□ Remove the speculum.
□ Allows oral administration of liquid medications without use of a stomach tube.
□ Liquid medications should be limited to a volume of 30 ml.
□ The sheep should be standing, with its head parallel to the ground or tilted slightly upward.
□ Insert the tip of a dose syringe/backpack syringe tip into the interdental space and dispense the medication.
□ Use a sheep-sized balling gun, either plastic or metal.
□ Introduce the balling gun at the interdental space.
□ Advance the gun into the mouth and over the base of the tongue.
□ Push the plunger gently to deliver the bolus.
□ Do not overextend the sheep’s neck.
□ Rumen contents can be siphoned from a healthy sheep and introduced into the rumen of a debilitated animal through a stomach tube.
□ At least 1 quart of rumen liquid should be administered to the unhealthy animal.
□ Jugular vein is used for administering iv medications and drawing blood samples; easily accessed in the standing sheep.
□ Cephalic and femoral veins may also be used, with the sheep in a standing or lateral position.
□ 18- or 20-gauge, 1- to 1 ½-inch needle is used for iv injection.
□ Vacutainer system can be used for collection of blood.
□ Part the wool along the jugular furrow and wipe the area with an antiseptic.
□ Placed in animals that require continuous fluid therapy, repeated iv treatments, or administration of irritating medications.
□ Jugular vein is the vessel of choice; cephalic or femoral veins may be used if the jugular vein is not patent.
□ Catheter dimensions—in adults, use 14-, 16-, or 18-gauge, 3 ½- to 5 ¼-inch catheters. In lambs, use 18-, 20-, or 22-gauge, 1 ½- to 3 ½-inch catheters.
□ Clip and aseptically prep the skin over the jugular furrow.
□ Local anesthetic may be used at the catheter introduction site.
□ Occlude the vein caudad to the insertion site and puncture the skin at the catheter site with a disposable needle the same diameter as the catheter.
□ Prevents the catheter tip from becoming dull as it passes through the skin.
□ Place the catheter through the needle hole at a 15- to 30-degree angle and quickly thrust the catheter into the vein and advance it toward the heart.
□ Secure the catheter to the neck with sutures.
□ Apply an antibiotic ointment over the catheter exit with a sterile tongue depressor.
□ Place a sterile gauze pad over the ointment and secure the setup with elastic tape around the sheep’s neck.
□ Iv drip line should be looped into or on top of the bandage and held in place with adhesive tape.
□ The catheter and iv lines should be changed every 3 days.
□ Flush the catheter every 4 hours with heparinized saline.
□ Done with the animal standing.
□ In adult sheep, use an 18-gauge, 1 ½-inch needle; in lambs, use a 20-gauge, 1-inch needle.
□ Only the semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and triceps muscles are substantial enough for IM injection.
□ Part the wool and swab the injection site with an antiseptic.
□ Administered with the sheep in a standing, lateral, or set up position.
□ In adult sheep, use an 18-gauge, 1-inch needle; for lambs, use a 20-gauge, 1-inch needle.
□ Any area with loose skin can be used
□ Using the wool-free areas caudad to the front legs and cranial to the rear legs reduces the chance of pelt damage.
□ Used infrequently in sheep; main use is for tuberculosis testing.
□ The caudal tail fold is the preferred site in sheep.
□ 25-gauge, ⅝-inch or 26-gauge, ⅜-inch needle is used.
□ A bleb or wheal should be visualized as the drug is deposited.
□ Used in neonates when an intravenous injection is not convenient.
□ Caudoventral abdominal wall cranial to the pubis is the best site.
□ Clip the area and prep with a surgical scrub.
□ Restrain the animal in dorsal recumbency, with the hindquarters elevated.
□ Use 18-gauge, 1- to 1 ½-inch needle.
□ Used to check or treat the udder for mastitis.
□ Usually done with the ewe in a standing position.
□ Wash the teats with warm water, an antiseptic soap, and a separate cloth or paper towel.
□ Wipe the teat orifices with an alcohol-drenched swab, starting with the far teat and ending with the near.
□ Allow the teats to air-dry.
□ Discard the milk in the streak canal.
□ Collect a midstream squirt of milk into an appropriate container (e.g., strip cup or sterile milk culture tube).
□ Observe for flakes or blood in the milk.
□ When treating the udder, grasp the teat near the base and insert the cannula into the teat orifice and deliver the medication into the teat.
□ Remove the cannula, occlude the teat end, and massage the teat to disseminate the medication.
□ Dip the teat in an approved teat dip preparation.
□ Allow the udder to dry thoroughly before turning the ewe out.
□ Hold the sheep in a standing position and pinch the nostrils closed until urination occurs; the sheep usually will urinate within 30 seconds.
□ Nostrils may be held off for up to 1 minute.
□ If the sheep does not urinate in that minute, allow the animal to rest for 1 or 2 minutes and then repeat the procedure.
□ Major use of goats today is milk production for fluid milk or cheese.
□ Techniques used in handling and treating goats are similar to those used for other food animal species.
□ Gestation is 5 months.
□ Doe—adult female
□ Kidding—giving birth
□ Buck—intact adult male
□ Wether—castrated adult male
□ Suitable for medications that act on the stomach or intestines or for systemic action after intestinal absorption.
□ Mass medication of feed and water is not reliable in goats.
□ Goats are very peculiar and may detect a change in odor or flavor and refrain from consuming the altered substance.
□ Oral liquid medication can be administered as a drench with a dosing bottle, drenching gun, or dosing syringe and stomach tube.
□ Boluses can be administered to goats by use of a balling gun; use sheep and goat balling gun or a calf-size balling gun.
□ For administration of a large volume of liquid medication or fluids.
□ Use a foal stomach tube.
□ Restrain the goat and use a wood block with a hole in the middle, a tape roll, or an appropriately sized syringe case with the end smoothed as a mouth speculum.
□ Place the speculum and pass the lubricated stomach tube through the speculum, over the base of the tongue, into the esophagus and into the rumen.
□ A stomach pump or a dose syringe may be attached to the stomach tube for administration of the liquid.
□ After fluid administration, flush the tube with water, blow it free of fluid, kink the free end, and withdraw the tube slowly.
□ Feeding probe or stomach tube can be used for administration of colostrum or oral electrolyte solution.
□ Oral fluids can also be administered to kids using a small flexible rubber tube.
□ Whenever the efficacy of treatment is not compromised, drugs and vaccines should be given SQ rather than IM in goats to minimize damage to muscle tissue.
□ Use a separate sterile needle for each goat to prevent the spread of caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE) virus.
C. Intravenous injection
□ Jugular vein is always used for intravenous injections and blood sampling in the goat.
□ Restrain the goat by backing the animal into a corner and holding it between one’s legs, with the goat’s neck extended and turned slightly to one side.
□ Clean the upper two thirds of the jugular furrow with a swab soaked in 70% alcohol.
□ Needle size depends on the viscosity of the drug to be administered.
□ Use the smallest needle possible; 18- to 20-gauge, 2- to 3-cm-long needle is most commonly used.
D. Jugular venipuncture and catheterization
□ Vacutainer needle and needle holder work well in goats for blood sampling.
□ Use an 18-gauge, 5- to 6-cm over-the-needle catheter.
□ Insert the catheter at a 45-degree angle, toward the heart; thread the catheter down the vein.
□ Cap the catheter and flush with heparinized saline.
□ Place a butterfly tape around the catheter and suture it to the skin.
□ Place a sterile gauze pad covered with an antiseptic ointment over the site where the catheter enters the skin.
□ Wrap elastic adhesive tape around the neck to secure the suture butterfly.
□ Preferred site for IM injections is the lateral aspect of the neck, in a triangular region bounded by the vertebral column ventrally, the ligamentum nuchae dorsally, and the shoulder caudally.
□ Injection into the thigh muscles should be avoided; muscle mass is small and sciatic nerve damage is a common complication.
□ Needle sizes: in an adult goat, use a 18- to 20-gauge, 2- to 3-cm needle; in kids, a 20- to 22-gauge, 2.5-cm needle.
□ Do not inject more than 5 ml per site.
F. Subcutaneous injection
□ Made into the loose skin of the lateral side of the neck or on the chest wall about 5 cm caudad to the shoulder.
□ Clean and vigorously rub the skin with a piece of cotton soaked with 70% alcohol.
□ Repeat the swabbing process with a new cotton swab until the cotton is no longer dirty after swabbing.
□ Insert the needle by a sudden thrust at a 30- to 45-degree angle to the skin, with or without the syringe attached.
□ 18- to 20-gauge, 2- to 3-cm needle is used for adult goats; 20- to 22-gauge, 2- to 3-cm needle for kids.
□ Do not inject more than 5 ml per site.
□ If a large volume is to be injected, divide the dose into several portions injected at different sites.
□ Avoid subcutaneous injection along the back and dorsal flank if the hide is to be marketed.
□ Vaccines should be injected SQ caudad to the shoulder.
□ Local reactions near the prescapular lymph node may be confused with caseous lymphadenitis.
G. Intradermal injection
□ Used for tuberculosis testing.
□ Injection site is the caudal tail fold.
□ 25-gauge, 1-cm tuberculin needle is used.
□ A wheal should be visualized as the drug is deposited.
□ Used to treat retained placenta or metritis.
□ Scrub and rinse the vulva thoroughly.
□ Insert a lubricated speculum into the vagina.
□ Insert a light source inside the speculum.
□ Rotate the speculum cranially until the cervix is located.
□ Insert a sterile bovine insemination pipette into the cervix by applying moderate pressure to penetrate the cervix and enter the uterus.
□ Attach a syringe to the end of the pipette, and infuse the fluid into the uterus.
□ Used in dairy goats for treatment of mastitis and before drying off.
□ Tips of the teats must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.
□ Intramammary products are available in special plastic syringes with a nozzle suitable for insertion into the teats.
□ Upon withdrawal of the nozzle, the teat is occluded and massaged, directing the fluid from the teat cistern into the glandular tissue.
□ A doe generally urinates just after standing.
□ Urine samples for bacteriologic, chemical, and microscopic testing can be collected directly from the bladder by inserting a catheter using aseptic technique.
□ Restrain the doe and clean the vulva.
□ Insert a double-bladed small animal vaginal speculum into the vagina.
□ Insert a sterile curved metal urinary catheter into the urethra.
□ Push the tip of the catheter a few millimeters into the suburethral diverticulum.
□ To collect milk samples for bacteriologic examination and somatic cell counts, disinfect each teat end with an alcohol-soaked cotton swab.
□ Sterile sample tubes are labeled as to the particular quarter, the stopper is removed, and milk is directed into the tube held at a 45-degree angle.
□ Milk samples are collected first from the near teat and then from the far one.
□ A small initial squirt of milk is discarded from each teat to flush out any bacteria present in the teat canal.
□ Sow—adult female
□ Boar—iIntact adult male
□ Barrow—castrated adult male
□ Farrowing—giving birth
□ Piglets—newborn swine
□ Gilt—young female (until it farrows)
□ Gestation—about 114 days
□ Confinement rearing facilities allow producers to raise more pigs per farm and to market pigs in 5 to 6 months.
□ The increase in pig density raises concerns in regard to prevention of disease.
□ Disease is best prevented by ensuring good health status, nutrition, housing, management, and husbandry.
1. Farrowing and piglets
□ Sows enter the farrowing room a few days before expected parturition.
□ Area provided for the piglets should be warm (30º to 35º C) and dry
□ Litter sizes range from 7 to 12.
□ Average birth weight is approximately 1.5 kg.
□ Piglets must begin nursing within 12 hours after birth.
2. Weaner pigs
□ This stage of growth is a stressful period that begins with weaning and placement in a nursery barn.
□ Pigs are approximately 5 to 8 kg at weaning and remain in the nursery until they weigh 25 kg.
□ Diet at the time of weaning changes from predominantly milk to a highly palatable, digestible dry food diet.
□ Warm (25º to 30º C), dry housing and a clean, sanitized environment are also important to this group of pigs.
3. Grower-finisher pigs
□ This phase includes gilts, and barrows from 25 kg up to market weight at 90 kg to 110 kg.
□ Fed a mixture of ground corn, soybean meal, and a vitamin-mineral premix.
B. Breeding stock
□ Includes gilts, sows, and boars.
□ Housing for this phase is provided in the breeding and gestating areas.
□ Proper handling reduces stress.
□ Processing includes teeth clipping, umbilical cord clipping, tail docking, ear notching, and castration.
□ Supplies and equipment needed for these practices are a disinfectant (chlorhexidine), tincture of iodine, side cutters, ear-notching tool, and a castration knife or scalpel.
3. Clipping teeth
□ Newborn piglets have eight very sharp canine (wolf) teeth.
□ If the needle teeth are left intact, the piglets scratch each other, causing infection.
□ Position the side cutters parallel to the gum line and clip off the distal half of each tooth.
a. Clipping the umbilical cord
□ Umbilical cord can act as a portal of entry for bacteria.
□ Use disinfected side cutters to cut the cord 4 to 5 cm from the abdominal wall.
□ Spray with or dip the end of the cord in 2% povidone-iodine.
4. Tail docking
□ Reduces the incidence of tail biting later in the grower-finisher stage.
□ Use clean, slightly dull side cutters to crush the tail approximately 2 cm from its base.
□ Cauterizing clippers tend to reduce the amount of bleeding.
5. Castration and inguinal hernia repair
□ Adult boars often have an offensive odor that is evident in pork during cooking.
□ Marketing of intact males is not allowed in the United States or Canada.
□ Techniques of castration are determined by the age and size of the pig.
□ Pigs between 2 weeks and 16 weeks of age can be held by the back legs, with the abdomen toward the operator and the back of the pig cradled between the restrainer’s legs.
□ A knife blade can be used in boars of any size. A hooked blade (No. 12) works well with pigs weighing less than 15 kg.
□ Restrain the pig by placing the left thumb caudad to the pig’s right ear.
□ Place the left index finger in the corner of the left side of the mouth, bringing the lips inside the pig’s mouth caudad to the needle teeth.
□ Placing the finger inside the mouth also encourages swallowing.
□ Place the remaining fingers under the jaw to support the pig’s weight.
□ Commonly given in the auricular vein.
□ Pigs less than 15 kg can be held; larger pigs should be restrained using a snare.
□ Occlude the vein using a hand or a rubber band as a tourniquet at the base of the ear.
□ A butterfly catheter set may be placed for administration of solutions.
□ Utilize the area of the neck muscle caudad to the ear.
□ Avoid injecting pharmaceuticals into the shoulder, loin, or ham.
□ Do not inject more than 2 ml of medication into one site.
□ Use the same injection site for each product to identify products that may cause reaction.
□ For pigs less than 25 kg, use the loose skin of the flank or caudad to the elbow.
□ If injecting into the flank, inject into the folds of the skin and not into the peritoneal cavity.
□ In larger pigs, the preferred injection site is the loose skin caudad to the ear.
□ Pigs less than 15 kg can be held; larger pigs should be snared and the head elevated.
□ Use a syringe without a needle or a special adapter to dispense the medication.
□ Time the injection with inspiration.
□ Direct the product into the nostril, keeping the pig’s head tilted upward during and immediately following administration.
□ Can use the cranial vena cava, jugular vein, auricular vein, medial canthus of the eye, or cephalic vein.
□ Techniques for collecting blood from pigs depend on the age and weight of the pigs and restraint techniques available.
1. Cranial vena cava and jugular vein
□ Identify the right jugular furrow to the point just cranial to and to the right of the manubrium.
□ Approach the pig from its right side.
□ Direct the needle toward the top of the opposite shoulder blade while a slight vacuum is maintained in the syringe.
2. Jugular vein
□ Identify the deepest hollow in the jugular furrow approximately 5 to 8 cm cranial to and to the right of the manubrium.
□ Position the needle, usually seated on a Vacutainer, perpendicular to the skin.
□ Direct the needle and Vacutainer toward the same shoulder blade of the pig.
3. Auricular vein
□ Used for collecting small samples of 2 to 5 ml.
□ 18- to 20-gauge butterfly catheter can be used for collection of blood.
□ Blood can be collected from the venous sinus located near the medial canthus of the eye.
□ Small pig can be held in dorsal recumbency on a 45-degree incline, with the head down and the hind end elevated; larger pig should be restrained with a snare.
□ The needle is positioned at a 45-degree angle from both the surface of the eye and the nose and passed into the medial canthus, just deep to the nictitating membrane.
□ The needle is directed toward the other side of the jaw until it strikes the lacrimal bone.
5. Tail vein
□ Limited to adult pigs without docked tails.
□ Tail vein is on the ventral midline of the tail at the junction of the tail with the body.
□ Volume of blood typically obtained is approximately 2 to 5 ml.
□ Llamas and alpacas are part of a larger group of South American camelids or New World camelids.
□ Four common species
□ Llama (Lama glama)—largest of the four species
□ Alpaca (Lama pacos)—smaller than the llama
□ Guanaco (Lama guanicoe)
□ Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna)—smallest and the rarest of the four species
A. Anatomic and physiologic characteristics
□ Camelids have a stomach with three compartments, rather than four like other ruminants.
□ First compartment represents more than 80% of the total stomach in volume and is equivalent to the rumen and reticulum of true ruminants.
□ A split upper lip facilitates food prehension.
□ Llamas have two digits on each foot; second and third phalanges are positioned horizontally and do not bear weight.
□ The jugular vein is deep in the neck and close to the carotid artery.
□ The uterus of the female llama is bicornuate, with a small uterine body.
□ Breeding is usually delayed until 12 months of age.
□ Ovulation is induced during copulation.
□ Normal gestation period is 335 to 350 days.
□ At birth, crias are covered by a semitransparent epidermal membrane attached to all mucocutaneous junctions.
□ Normal crias stand and nurse within an hour after birth.
□ Average birth weight ranges from 8 to 18 kg.
□ Llamas and alpacas are shy, curious, social animals with a strong herd instinct.
□ When a llama is upset, the ears are flattened against the head and the nose is elevated and they begin to vocalize (orgle); if they remain agitated, the llama may spit (actually regurgitate stomach contents) and continue to vocalize.
□ Male llamas may bite, charge, and butt with their chest. They can also kick with their rear legs and inflict injury.
□ If the individual has not been caught, it is easier to move the whole herd to a smaller enclosure before trying to isolate one animal for examination.
□ A restraining chute can be used or temporary restraint achieved using an ear twitch.
1. Immunization
□ Minimal vaccination program includes Clostridium perfringens C/D and tetanus.
2. Parasite control
□ New World camelids are susceptible to all the nematode parasites that affect ruminants.
3. Common procedures
□ Male llamas generally need to have their incisors and canines cut by 2 to 2.5 years of age.
□ Castration is usually performed after 2 years of age but can be done earlier if necessary.
X. Common diagnostic and therapeutic techniques
□ Medication, fluids, or food can be administered with a stomach tube.
□ The landmarks and the technique are similar to those used for blood collection.
□ Can be done in any large muscle mass using a 22- to 16-gauge 4-cm needle, depending on the viscosity of the drug.
□ The neck region should be avoided.
□ The semimembranosus and semitendinosus muscles are the sites of choice.
□ Preferred sites include the skin of the thorax and caudad to the elbow, where wool is usually absent.
E. Blood collection
□ Superficial veins are not readily accessible.
□ Jugular venipuncture can be done at a cranial or caudad location on the neck.
□ Blood can also be collected from an ear vein near the caudad edge of the pinna.
□ The midventral vein of the tail is located in a similar location as in cattle.
□ The saphenous artery and vein can be used for blood collection in recumbent llamas.
F. Urine collection
□ Free catch or bladder catheterization; bladder catheterization is virtually impossible in the male.
XI. General care of ratites
□ Ratites are a group of nonflying birds that include:
□ Ostrich (Struthio casmelus)
□ Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae)
□ Rhea (Rhea americana)
□ Cassowary (Casuarius casuarius)
A. Visual evaluation
□ Visual assessment of the entire flock may provide pertinent information about individual health.
□ The birds’ activity level should be noted.
□ Observe the birds while they are eating.
□ Unhealthy or sick birds may go through the motions as if they are eating, but no food bolus can be seen passing down the neck.
□ Closer examination should be performed on birds that are inactive, that lag behind, or that are not actively eating.
□ Note asymmetry of the neck and dorsal spine and deviations of the appendages.
□ Note condition of the integumentary system.
B. Physical examination
□ The heart rate (60 to 120 beats/min) is determined by auscultation laterally, between the ribs.
□ The respiratory rate (10 to 40 breaths/min) is best determined visually in the unrestrained patient.
□ Temperature (100º to 104º F) can be measured with a rectal or tympanic membrane thermometer.
□ Cloacal temperatures may be 1º or 2º F lower than tympanic membrane temperatures.
□ The eyes can be superficially examined with a good penlight.
□ The ear canals are easily explored with an otoscope for parasites, hemorrhage, or masses.
□ When the mouth is opened, themucous membranes are evaluated for color (pink) and capillary refill time (<2.5 sec).
□ Symmetry of the choana (nasopharynx), glottis, and rostral trachea should be noted.
□ Choanal or tracheal swabs can be made for bacterial culture and cytology when a discharge is noted.
□ The abdomen is easily palpated in the chick. Structures that should be noted include the proventriculus and yolk sac.
□ The proventriculus lies just to the left of the midline, caudad to the rib cage.
□ An empty proventriculus is firm.
□ The cloaca should be examined for accumulation of fecal matter and urates on the feathers surrounding the opening.
□ The skin and feathers should be evaluated for parasites and trauma.
□ The wings and limbs of the birds should be examined closely, both visually and by palpation.
□ Ostriches and rheas have well-developed wings, whereas the wings of the emu are vestigial and difficult to see when held close to the body.
□ The tendons and their sheaths should be examined for pain and swelling.
□ Tendon luxation over the tibiotarsus and the metatarsophalangeal joint is a common injury.
□ The feet should always be examined closely for heat, pain, and swelling.
C. Restraint
□ The birds have very powerful legs that can inflict severe trauma from kicking.
□ The emu, rhea, and cassowary have very sharp claws that can easily lacerate the handler.
□ The danger zone when working on ratites is directly in front of the birds because they strike forward when they kick.
□ The emu and rhea can also kick to the side.
□ Chicks can easily be handled by placing a hand between their legs while cupping the sternum and picking them up, much like holding a football.
□ Larger juveniles can be held standing from the back or from the side, keeping the bird close to the handler’s body.
□ It is frequently necessary to capture large juveniles or adult ostriches in an open pen.
□ Applying a loose, tubular cloth hood over the head and covering the eyes commonly calms the bird so that evaluation and treatment can be carried out.
□ The bird can be restrained by squeezing it between a solid gate and a wall.
□ The emu’s sharp claws and rough, scaly tarsometatarsus can tear clothing and severely abrade the handler’s skin.
□ Male rheas are the most aggressive of the three common species.
□ A hood can be applied to rheas, but the results are much less predictable than with ostriches.
□ Working on the birds in a darkened enclosure may have a calming effect on the birds.
XII. Common diagnostic and therapeutic techniques
A. Oral administration of medication
1. Orogastric intubation
□ Open the mouth by grasping the upper beak and direct the tube over the glottis.
□ Esophagostomy tube placement should be considered when long-term enteral nutrition is indicated.
B. Administration of injections
□ SQ injections can be given over the lateral thorax, caudad to the leg.
□ IM injections are usually given in the abaxial muscles over the rump and in the proximal thigh.
□ IV injections are administered in the same locations as described for blood sampling, although the metatarsal vein is seldom used for this purpose.
C. Blood collection and catheterization
□ Blood sampling and catheterization can be performed on the right jugular, cutaneous ulnar, and medial metatarsal veins.
□ Feathers can be plucked to help visualize the vessel.
□ When this vessel is catheterized, placement is in the upper (cranial) 1/3 of the neck to prevent the bird from pulling it out.
□ In the ostrich and rhea, the cutaneous ulnar vein is located on the ventral aspect of the wing, coursing over the distal antebrachium.
□ The vestigial wing in the emu makes this vein impractical for blood sampling and catheterization.
□ The medial metatarsal vein is located on the medial aspect of the leg, paralleling the metatarsus.
□ This vessel is easily lacerated if the bird kicks during sampling.
□ Needles and catheters of 20 to 22 gauge are commonly used in these birds.
□ Heparin tubes should be used for collecting ostrich blood.
D. Fluid therapy
□ Fluids can be administered parenterally or enterally.
□ Parenteral administration is performed subcutaneously or intravenously.
□ Enteral fluid administration is performed via an orogastric tube.
